About cervical cancer

What is cervical cancer?

What is the cervix?

The cervix is part of a woman's reproductive system. It's in the pelvis. The cervix is the lower, narrow part of the uterus (womb).

The cervix is a passageway:

  • The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina. During a menstrual period, blood flows from the uterus through the cervix into the vagina. The vagina leads to the outside of the body.
  • The cervix makes mucus. During sex, mucus helps sperm move from the vagina through the cervix into the uterus.
  • During pregnancy, the cervix is tightly closed to help keep the baby inside the uterus. During childbirth, the cervix opens to allow the baby to pass through the vagina.

What is cancer?

Cancer begins in cells, the building blocks that make up tissues. Tissues make up the cervix and other organs of the body.

Normal cervical cells grow and divide to form new cells as the body needs them. When normal cells grow old or get damaged, they die, and new cells take their place.

Sometimes, this process goes wrong. New cells form when the body does not need them, and old or damaged cells do not die as they should. The buildup of extra cells often forms a mass of tissue called a growth or tumor.

Growths on the cervix can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer):

  • Benign growths (polyps, cysts, or genital warts):
    • are rarely a threat to life
    • don't invade the tissues around them
  • Malignant growths (cervical cancer):
    • may become a threat to life if not found soon enough
    • can invade nearby tissues and organs
    • can spread to other parts of the body

Cervical cancer begins in cells on the surface of the cervix. Over time, the cervical cancer can invade more deeply into the cervix and nearby tissues.

Cervical cancer cells can spread by breaking away from the cervical tumor. They can travel through lymph vessels to nearby lymph nodes. Also, cancer cells can spread through the blood vessels to the lungs, liver, or bones. The process of spreading of cancer cells from the tissue in which they arise to other tissues elsewhere is called metastasis.

After spreading, cancer cells may attach to other tissues and grow to form new tumors that may damage those tissues. See the Staging section for information about cervical cancer that has spread.

What are the symptoms for cervical cancer?

Early-stage cervical cancer generally produces no signs or symptoms.

Signs and symptoms of more-advanced cervical cancer include:

  • Vaginal bleeding after intercourse, between periods or after menopause
  • Watery, bloody vaginal discharge that may be heavy and have a foul odor
  • Pelvic Pain or Pain during intercourse

When to see a doctor

Make an appointment with your doctor if you have any signs or symptoms that concern you.

What are the causes for cervical cancer?

Cervical cancer begins when healthy cells acquire a genetic change (mutation) that causes them to turn into abnormal cells.

Healthy cells grow and multiply at a set rate, eventually dying at a set time. Cancer cells grow and multiply out of control, and they don't die. The accumulating abnormal cells form a mass (tumor). Cancer cells invade nearby tissues and can break off from a tumor to spread (metastasize) elsewhere in the body.

It isn't clear what causes cervical cancer, but it's certain that HPV plays a role. HPV is very common, and most women with the virus never develop cervical cancer. This means other factors — such as your environment or your lifestyle choices — also determine whether you'll develop cervical cancer.

Types of cervical cancer

The type of cervical cancer that you have helps determine your prognosis and treatment. The main types of cervical cancer are:

  • Squamous cell carcinoma. This type of cervical cancer begins in the thin, flat cells (squamous cells) lining the outer part of the cervix, which projects into the vagina. Most cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinomas.
  • Adenocarcinoma. This type of cervical cancer begins in the column-shaped glandular cells that line the cervical canal.

Sometimes, both types of cells are involved in cervical cancer. Very rarely, cancer occurs in other cells in the cervix.

What are the treatments for cervical cancer?

Treatment options for women with cervical cancer are...

  • Surgery
  • Radiation therapy
  • Chemotherapy
  • A combination of these methods

The choice of treatment depends mainly on the size of the tumor and whether the cancer has spread. The treatment choice may also depend on whether you would like to become pregnant someday.

Your doctor may refer you to a specialist, or you may ask for a referral. You may want to see a gynecologic oncologist, a doctor who specializes in treating female cancers. Other specialists who treat cervical cancer include gynecologists, medical oncologists, and radiation oncologists.

Your health care team may also include an oncology nurse and a registered dietitian. Your health care team can describe your treatment choices, the expected results of each, and the possible side effects. Because cancer treatments often damage healthy cells and tissues, side effects are common. These side effects depend on many factors, including the type of treatment. Side effects may not be the same for each person, and they may even change from one treatment session to the next. Before treatment starts, ask your health care team about possible side effects and how treatment may change your normal activities. You and your health care team can work together to develop a treatment plan that meets your medical and personal needs.

At any stage of the disease, supportive care is available to control pain and other symptoms, to relieve the side effects of treatment, and to ease emotional concerns. You can get information about coping on NCI's website at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/coping.

Also, you can get information about supportive care from NCI's Cancer Information Service at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237). Or, chat using LiveHelp, NCI's instant messaging service, at http://www.cancer.gov/livehelp.

You may want to talk with your doctor about taking part in a clinical trial. Clinical trials are research studies testing new treatments. They are an important option for women with all stages of cervical cancer. See the section on Taking Part in Cancer Research 4.

You may want to ask the doctor these questions before treatment begins:

  • What is the stage of my disease? Has the cancer spread? If so, where?
  • May I have a copy of the report from the pathologist?
  • What are my treatment choices? Which do you recommend for me? Will I have more than one kind of treatment?
  • What are the expected benefits of each kind of treatment?
  • What are the risks and possible side effects of each treatment? What can we do to control the side effects?
  • What can I do to prepare for treatment?
  • Will I have to stay in the hospital? If so, for how long?
  • What is the treatment likely to cost? Will my insurance cover the cost?
  • How will treatment affect my normal activities?
  • How may treatment affect my sex life?
  • Will I be able to get pregnant and have children after treatment? Should I preserve eggs before treatment starts?
  • What can I do to take care of myself during treatment?
  • What is my chance of a full recovery?
  • How often will I need checkups after treatment?
  • Would a research study (clinical trial) be right for me?

Surgery

Surgery is an option for women with Stage I or II cervical cancer. You and your surgeon can talk about the types of surgery and which may be right for you.

If you have a small tumor, the type of surgery may depend on whether you want to get pregnant and have children later on. Some women with very early cervical cancer may decide with their surgeon to have only the cervix, part of the vagina, and the lymph nodes in the pelvis removed (radical trachelectomy).

Other women may choose to have the cervix and uterus removed (complete hysterectomy). The surgeon may also remove some tissue around the cervix, part of the vagina, the fallopian tubes, or the ovaries. In addition, the surgeon may remove lymph nodes near the tumor.

It's common to feel tired or weak for a while after surgery for cervical cancer. The time it takes to heal is different for each woman. You'll probably be able to leave the hospital within a couple of days. Most women return to their normal activities within 4 to 8 weeks after surgery.

You may have pain or discomfort for the first few days after surgery. Medicine can help control your pain. Before surgery, you should discuss the plan for pain relief with your health care team. After surgery, they can adjust the plan if you need more pain control.

After a trachelectomy, some women need to have a tube put into the bladder to drain urine. It usually can be removed a few days after surgery.

After a hysterectomy, some women become constipated or have nausea and vomiting. In addition, some women lose control of their bladder or have trouble emptying their bladder. These effects are usually temporary. After a hysterectomy, you'll stop having menstrual periods, and you won't be able to become pregnant.

After the ovaries are removed, menopause occurs at once. You may have hot flashes, vaginal dryness, and night sweats. These symptoms are caused by the sudden loss of female hormones. Talk with your health care team about your symptoms so that you can develop a treatment plan together. There are drugs and lifestyle changes that can help, and most symptoms go away or lessen with time.

Surgery to remove lymph nodes may cause swelling (lymphedema) in one or both legs. Ask your health care team about how you may prevent or control the swelling. Information about lymphedema is available on NCI's website at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/coping.

For some women, surgery to remove the cervix and nearby tissues can affect sexual intimacy. You may have feelings of loss that make intimacy difficult. Sharing these feelings with your partner may be helpful. Sometimes couples talk with a counselor to help them express their concerns.

You may want to ask the doctor these questions before having surgery:

  • Do you recommend surgery for me? If so, which kind? Will my ovaries be removed? Do I need to have lymph nodes removed?
  • What is the goal of surgery?
  • What are the risks of surgery?
  • How will I feel after surgery? If I have pain, how will it be controlled?
  • How long will I have to be in the hospital?
  • Will I have any lasting side effects?
  • When will I be able to resume normal activities?

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells. It's an option for women with any stage of cervical cancer. Women with early cervical cancer may choose radiation therapy instead of surgery. It also may be used after surgery to destroy any cancer cells that remain in the area. Women with cancer that extends beyond the cervix may have radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

Doctors use two types of radiation therapy to treat cervical cancer. Some women receive both types:

  • External radiation therapy: A large machine directs radiation at your pelvis or other areas with cancer. The treatment usually is given in a hospital or clinic. You may receive external radiation therapy 5 days a week for several weeks. Each treatment takes only a few minutes.
  • Internal radiation therapy (also called brachytherapy): A narrow cylinder is placed inside your vagina, and a radioactive substance is loaded into the cylinder. Usually, a session of internal radiation therapy lasts only a few minutes. The cylinder and substance are removed, and you can go home. The short session may be repeated two or more times over several weeks. When the radioactive substance is removed, no radioactivity is left in your body. With a less common method of internal radiation therapy, you may stay in the hospital for several days during treatment.

Although radiation therapy is painless, it may cause side effects. The side effects depend mainly on how much radiation is given and which part of your body is treated. Radiation to the abdomen and pelvis may cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or urinary problems. You may lose hair in your genital area. Also, skin on the abdomen and pelvis may become red, dry, and tender.

You may have dryness, itching, or burning in your vagina. Your doctor may advise you to wait until a few weeks after radiation treatment ends to have sex.

You are likely to become tired during radiation therapy, especially in the later weeks of treatment. Resting is important, but doctors usually advise patients to try to stay as active as they can.

Although the side effects of radiation therapy can be upsetting, they can usually be treated or controlled. Talk with your doctor or nurse about ways to relieve discomfort.

It may also help to know that most side effects go away when treatment ends. However, you may want to discuss with your doctor the possible long-term effects of radiation therapy. For example, radiation therapy may make the vagina narrower. A narrow vagina can make sex or follow-up exams difficult. There are ways to prevent this problem. If it does occur, however, your health care team can tell you about ways to expand the vagina.

Another possible long-term effect is damage to the ovaries. Menstrual periods usually stop, and women may have hot flashes and vaginal dryness. Menstrual periods may return for some women, especially younger women. Women who may want to get pregnant after radiation therapy should ask their health care team about ways to preserve their eggs before treatment starts.

You may want to ask the doctor these questions before having radiation therapy:

  • What is the goal of this treatment?
  • How will the radiation be given?
  • Will I need to stay in the hospital? If so, for how long?
  • When will the treatments begin?
  • How often will I have them? When will they end?
  • How will I feel during treatment? Are there side effects?
  • How will we know if the radiation therapy is working?
  • Will I be able to continue my normal activities during treatment?
  • How will radiation therapy affect my sex life?
  • Are there lasting side effects?

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells. For the treatment of cervical cancer, chemotherapy is usually combined with radiation therapy. For cancer that has spread to distant organs, chemotherapy may be used alone.

Most drugs for cervical cancer are given directly into a vein (intravenously) through a thin needle. Some drugs can be taken by mouth. Most women receive chemotherapy in a clinic or at the doctor's office. Drugs that are swallowed may be taken at home instead. Some women need to stay in the hospital during treatment.

The side effects depend mainly on which drugs are given and how much. Chemotherapy kills fast-growing cancer cells, but the drugs can also harm normal cells that divide rapidly:

  • Blood cells: When chemotherapy lowers the levels of healthy blood cells, you're more likely to get infections, bruise or bleed easily, and feel very weak and tired. Your health care team will check for low levels of blood cells. If the levels are low, your health care team may stop the chemotherapy for a while or reduce the dose of drug. They may also give you medicines that can help your body make new blood cells.
  • Cells in hair roots: Chemotherapy may cause hair loss. If you lose your hair, it will grow back, but it may change in color and texture for a while. Ultimately it will return to being naturally as it was before.
  • Cells that line the digestive tract: Chemotherapy can cause a poor appetite, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, or mouth and lip sores. Your health care team can give you medicines and suggest other ways to help with these problems.

Other side effects include skin rash, tingling or numbness in your hands and feet, hearing problems, loss of balance, joint pain, or swollen legs and feet. Your health care team can suggest ways to control many of these problems. Most go away when treatment ends.

You may want to ask the doctor these questions before having chemotherapy:

  • Why do I need this treatment?
  • Which drug or drugs will I have?
  • How do the drugs work?
  • What are the expected benefits of the treatment?
  • What are the risks and possible side effects of treatment? What can we do about them?
  • When will treatment start? When will it end?
  • How will treatment affect my normal activities?

Second opinion

Before starting treatment, you might want a second opinion about your diagnosis, stage of cancer, and treatment plan. Some people worry that the doctor will be offended if they ask for a second opinion. Usually the opposite is true. Most doctors welcome a second opinion. And many health insurance companies will pay for a second opinion if you or your doctor requests it. Some companies require a second opinion.

If you get a second opinion, the second doctor may agree with your first doctor's diagnosis and treatment plan. Or, the second doctor may suggest another approach. Either way, you have more information and perhaps a greater sense of control. You can feel more confident about the decisions you make, knowing that you've looked at all of your options.

It may take some time and effort to gather your medical records and see another doctor. In most cases, it's not a problem to take several weeks to get a second opinion. The delay in starting treatment usually will not make treatment less effective. To make sure, you should discuss this delay with your doctor.

There are many ways to find a doctor for a second opinion. You can ask your doctor, a local or state medical society, or a nearby hospital or medical school for names of specialists.

Nutrition

Eating well is important before, during, and after cancer treatment. You need the right amount of calories to maintain a good weight. You also need enough protein to keep up your strength. Eating well may help you feel better and have more energy.

Sometimes, especially during or soon after treatment, you may not feel like eating. You may be uncomfortable or tired. You may find that foods don't taste as good as they used to. In addition, poor appetite, nausea, vomiting, mouth blisters, and other side effects of treatment can make it hard for you to eat.

Your doctor, a registered dietitian, or another health care provider can suggest ways to help you meet your nutrition needs.

What are the risk factors for cervical cancer?

Risk factors for cervical cancer include:

  • Many sexual partners. The greater your number of sexual partners — and the greater your partner's number of sexual partners — the greater your chance of acquiring HPV.
  • Early sexual activity. Having sex at an early age increases your risk of HPV.
  • Other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Having other STIs — such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis and HIV/AIDS — increases your risk of HPV.
  • A weak immune system. You may be more likely to develop cervical cancer if your immune system is weakened by another health condition and you have HPV.
  • Smoking. Smoking is associated with squamous cell cervical cancer.

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